This is a working overview of PTMA gene, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-06-13 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
The peptide was identified during work in the 1970s on thymosin fraction 5, a partially purified extract of calf thymus. Investigators separated that mixture and characterized individual components, one of which they named thymosin alpha-1. The same compound later received the international nonproprietary name thymalfasin. Commercial material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than by extraction, so synthetic and natural forms share an identical sequence. Naming conventions vary across the literature, and readers should distinguish the alpha-1 peptide from other thymosins that have unrelated sequences and functions.
Thymosin beta-4 is a separate 43-residue peptide that binds actin and participates in cell migration; it shares no sequence similarity with thymosin alpha-1 despite the common family name. Other preparative materials, such as thymosin fraction 5 and thymopoietin, contain distinct mixtures or peptides. The shared thymosin label reflects the tissue of origin used in early purification, not a common structural core. Treating these molecules as interchangeable is a frequent source of confusion in laboratory reports and in popular summaries alike.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Clinical interest has centered on chronic viral hepatitis, on immune restoration in various conditions, and on use as an adjuvant intended to improve responses to vaccines. Trials have reported mixed results, and regulatory status differs sharply between countries; in some places it is a prescription product, while elsewhere it is sold without an approved therapeutic indication. Because published studies vary widely in design, population, and endpoints, comparisons across them are difficult and no single conclusion covers the whole literature.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide of 28 amino acid residues that derives from the amino terminal region of a larger precursor protein known as prothymosin alpha. The peptide carries an acetyl group on its first residue and contains no disulfide bonds or carbohydrate chains. Its sequence is highly conserved across mammalian species, which is one reason laboratories treat it as a molecule with a defined and reproducible structure rather than a variable tissue extract. The name follows an early naming convention for thymus-derived fractions and does not imply that the peptide acts as a hormone in the classical endocrine sense.
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide first isolated from bovine thymus tissue in the early 1970s during fractionation work aimed at identifying factors that influence T cell development. It belongs to a family of acidic thymic peptides, and the original preparations contained several components that were later separated by chromatography. The compound is now produced synthetically rather than extracted from tissue, which removes batch variability tied to animal sourcing. Researchers describe it as an immunomodulatory peptide because laboratory studies show effects on several cell types of the innate and adaptive immune systems.
Abdominal fullness related to an enlarged spleen (splenomegaly). Enlargement of both the liver and spleen Splenomegaly due to extramedullary hematopoiesis (hematopoiesis occurring outside of the bone marrow) Bone pain Bruising and easy bleeding due to inadequate numbers of platelets Increased risk of thrombosis Cachexia (loss of appetite, weight loss, and fatigue) Fatigue Fevers Chills Weight loss Gout and high uric acid levels Increased susceptibility to infection, such as pneumonia Pallor and shortness of breath due to anemia Leukoerythroblastic smear (tear-drop RBCs, nucleated RBCs, and immature granulocytes) In rarer cases, a raised red blood cell volume Cutaneous myelofibrosis is a rare skin condition characterized by dermal and subcutaneous nodules.
Houston producer DJ Screw popularized the concoction, which is widely attributed as a source of inspiration for the chopped-and-screwed style of hip hop music. The promethazine and codeine concoction first gained popularity in the underground hip hop scene in Houston, where musician Big Hawk said it was consumed as early as the 1960s and 1970s, becoming more widely used in the early 1990s. Because of usage by rap artists in Houston, it became more popular in the 1990s. Its use later spread to other States in the South. In June 2000, Three 6 Mafia's single "Sippin' on Some Syrup", featuring UGK, brought the term purple drank to a nationwide audience. In 2004, the University of Texas at Austin found that 8.3% of secondary school students in Texas had taken codeine syrup to get high. The Drug Enforcement Administration reports busts involving syrup across the Southern United States, particularly in Texas and Florida. As of 2011, the price of lean in Houston was twice the price it is in Los Angeles. In a 2019 interview, American rapper Future spoke about quitting lean and stated that he was afraid that his fans would believe his music has changed if he had publicly admitted to quitting earlier. Future expressed disappointment after American rapper Juice Wrld told him that he was influenced by his music to try lean when he was young. Future stated "It's like, 'Oh shit.' How many other sixth-graders did I influence to drink lean?" The two artists had released a collaborative mixtape titled Wrld on Drugs in October 2018.
Following the House passage of OBBBA, the bill moved to the Senate for consideration. The Republican-led Senate amended the bill. Fiscally conservative Republican Senators (nicknamed "deficit hawks") such as Ron Johnson of Wisconsin, Rick Scott of Florida, Mike Lee of Utah, and Rand Paul of Kentucky, pushed for deeper spending cuts. Moderate Republicans such as Susan Collins of Maine, Lisa Murkowski of Alaska, and Jerry Moran of Kansas, along with populist Josh Hawley of Missouri, expressed concerns about Medicaid cuts. Other moderates such as John Curtis of Utah and Thom Tillis of North Carolina, along with Murkowski and Moran, expressed concerns over the end of green energy tax credits. Defense hawks such as Mike Rounds of South Dakota were opposed to spectrum auction provisions in the bill. Democrats in the Senate sought to use the Byrd Rule, which prevents reconciliation from being used to pass "extraneous" measures in bills which increase federal spending in the Senate, in order to strip certain provisions from the bill. Democrats argued that the extension of Trump's 2017 tax cuts, a proposed 10-year ban on state level AI regulations, language that limits the power of federal court to enforce contempt of court citations, a provision to end a tax on the manufacturing of gun silencers, a provision to defund Planned Parenthood, a provision banning Medicaid from funding gender-affirming care for people of all ages and a provision to streamline permits for fossil fuel projects, violated the Byrd Rule.
=== Businesses === In October 2020, the e-commerce platform Shopify added TikTok to its portfolio of social media platforms, allowing online merchants to sell their products directly to consumers on TikTok. Some small businesses have used TikTok to advertise and to reach an audience wider than the geographical region they would normally serve. The viral response to many small business TikTok videos has been attributed to TikTok's algorithm, which shows content that viewers at large are drawn to, but which they are unlikely to actively search for (such as videos on unconventional types of businesses, like beekeeping and logging). In 2020, digital media companies such as Group Nine Media and Global used TikTok increasingly, focusing on tactics such as brokering partnerships with TikTok influencers and developing branded content campaigns. Notable collaborations between larger brands and top TikTok influencers have included Chipotle's partnership with David Dobrik in May 2019 and Dunkin' Donuts' partnership with Charli D'Amelio in September 2020.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Relations with Free Peru ==== After the new ministers were sworn in, Free Peru's spokesperson Waldemar Cerrón called the new cabinet a betrayal of the majority. He stated that Free Peru will keep fighting for a cabinet that represents all Peruvian people. According to Edgar Tello, a Congressman from Free Peru, his party has agreed to not give confidence to the Vásquez cabinet. Tello also indicated that if Castillo does not respond to Free Peru's request to reevaluate the cabinet, then Free Peru could become part of the opposition. When asked if the party would support impeachment against Castillo, Tello stated that the Free Peru caucus has not made a decision in this regard. However, he noted that he wished that Free Peru wouldn't have to resort to such extremes. The next day, Free Peru released a statement, in which they stated they will not support the cabinet but ruled out acting to obstruct the Government. Waldemar Cerrón claimed that the party was more united than ever, and that they support President Castillo. That said, a faction of Free Peru came out in support of the new cabinet. Ultimately, 16 of Free Peru's parliamentarians, including former prime minister Guido Bellido, voted against giving confidence to the Vásquez cabinet. 19 of Free Peru's parliamentarians voted to give confidence to the Vásquez cabinet. On 6 November 2021, Free Peru's Regional Secretary Jorge Spelucín claimed that President Castillo had cut off all communication channels with Free Peru.
== Awards and honors == Arthur C. Cope Scholar Award (2024) from the American Chemical Society for his foundational contributions to organic chemistry. Cathay Award (2024) from the Chinese Peptide Society for his work in peptide science. Max Bergmann Kreis Gold Medal (2011) for outstanding contributions in peptide chemistry. Vincent du Vigneaud Award (2010) from the American Peptide Society.
=== North Atlantic === Recipes for fish maw, specifically codfish maw, are documented in Hannah Glasse's 1747 English cuisine cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy: fish maw is presented in gravy, broiled, and as a fricassee. Cod maw was later described as a 'delicacy' in the 1911 American food industry encyclopedia, The Grocer's Encyclopedia, by Artemas Ward. Cod maw is a traditional food of Newfoundland, owing to the ubiquity of the cod fishing industry. It was typically salted for preservation until use, then boiled and stewed. The popularity of cod maw dropped in the late 20th century along with cod tongue and cheeks, but has begun to see a resurgence with culinary tourism and interest in nose to tail eating. In Portugal, Codfish maw (Portuguese: sames) was salted and brought to shore to be eaten as a fisherman's dish. Portuguese sailors from Figueira da Foz would rely on codfish maw as a byproduct of cod fishing in Newfoundland. Feijoada is traditionally made with fish maw instead of pork in Figueira da Foz (Feijoada de sames).
== Contraindications == Venlafaxine is not recommended in patients hypersensitive to it, nor should it be taken by anyone who is allergic to the inactive ingredients, which include gelatin, cellulose, ethylcellulose, iron oxide, titanium dioxide and hypromellose. It should not be used in conjunction with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), as it can cause potentially fatal serotonin syndrome. Venlafaxine might interact with tramadol or other opioids, as well as trazodone and buspirone, so caution is needed while mixing multiple serotonergic agents together.
== Chemistry == Isavuconazonium comprises an N-(3-acetoxypropyl)-N-methylamino-carboxymethyl group linked through an ester moiety to the triazole nitrogen in isavuconazole. In the aquatic media of the body, the isavuconazole molecule is transformed into monohydrate.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Structure == Catecholamines have the distinct structure of a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups, an intermediate ethyl chain, and a terminal amine group. Phenylethanolamines such as norepinephrine have a hydroxyl group on the ethyl chain.
Le Havre Octeville Airport which is located 5 km (3 mi) north of Le Havre at the town of Octeville-sur-Mer and managed by CODAH. The airport does not have any scheduled services to or from Le Havre at this time. Currently, air travel is served by the nearest Caen–Carpiquet Airport which is located approximately 54 km away from Le Havre. The main destination is the Transport hub of Lyon. Many holiday destinations are offered each year (Tunisia, Balearic Islands, Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria, etc.) through local travel agencies that charter aircraft. There is also the Flying club Jean Maridor at the airport. The Channel maritime links with Portsmouth in southern England with P&O Ferries ended on 30 September 2005 to be taken over by LD Lines who had changed the configuration. Two services to Portsmouth are provided daily from the Terminal de la Citadelle until ceasing operations in 2014, the route has since been taken over by Brittany Ferries. It will cease in September 2026. The link to Ireland was moved to the port of Cherbourg. Crossing times to Portsmouth vary from five hours and thirty minutes to eight hours. Popular alternative routes going to areas close to Le Havre include Newhaven to Dieppe, and Poole to Cherbourg.
Cycling extract is a cell-free system derived from Xenopus eggs that autonomously undergoes repeated S phase and M phase cycles. It is prepared by artificially inducing intracellular responses that mimic fertilization, typically through calcium ionophore treatment or electrical stimulation of unfertilized eggs, followed by mechanical crushing of the eggs. This extract has been instrumental in elucidating fundamental mechanisms of cell cycle regulation. For example, it revealed that entry into M phase depends on the translation of cyclin B, which in turn activates maturation promoting factor (MPF). Cycling extracts are primarily used to study the regulation of cell cycle progression.
Reported side effects are: neurological reactions (e.g., headache, dizziness, drowsiness, disorientation, hallucinations, and convulsions), nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, mucositis, anorexia, stomatitis, bone marrow toxicity (dose-limiting toxicity; may take 7–21 days to recover after the drug has been discontinued), megaloblastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, bleeding, hemorrhage, gastrointestinal ulceration and perforation, immunosuppression, leukopenia, alopecia (hair loss), skin rashes (e.g., maculopapular rash), erythema, pruritus, vesication or irritation of the skin and mucous membranes, pulmonary edema, abnormal liver enzymes, creatinine and blood urea nitrogen. Due to its negative effect on the bone marrow, regular monitoring of the full blood count is vital, as well as early response to possible infections. In addition, renal function, uric acid and electrolytes, as well as liver enzymes, are commonly checked. Moreover, because of this, its use in people with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia or severe anemia is contraindicated. Hydroxycarbamide has been used primarily for the treatment of myeloproliferative diseases, which has an inherent risk of transforming to acute myeloid leukemia. There has been a longstanding concern that hydroxycarbamide itself carries a leukemia risk, but large studies have shown that the risk is either absent or very small. Nevertheless, it has been a barrier for its wider use in patients with sickle-cell disease.
== Experiments with argiotoxins == Argiotoxins studies have been particularly made to discover the relation between inhibition, receptors, and ionic channels. Researchers have specifically pursued the blocking of receptors on invertebrates, rather than on vertebrates. Referring to invertebrates, Planorbarius corneus is a mollusc involved in one of the many ionic experiments. To begin with, neurons of molluscan pedal ganglia were isolated and transferred to a special chamber with saline solution and regulated temperature. Then, the observation was based on routine voltage clamp technique. Electrical measurements were obtained from the evaluation of neurons response to various substances (argiopines). In addition to that, crayfish, a freshwater crustacean, has followed a similar protocol to this study. In this case, the analysis was made of the stomach muscles and using the patch clamp technique. The research findings were obtained taking into account the bursts of openings of excitatory channels. Other experiments use spectroscopy in order to analyse and differentiate these molecules. HPLC, mass spectrometry, UV data and amino acid analysis are the elements that allow identifying diverse argiotoxins due to their spectrum. Argiope lobata toxins (Arg 636, Arg 630, Arg 658, Arg 744, Arg 759, Arg 373, Arg 728, Arg 723, ...) show a close similarity in their structures; the subtle differences between them are chemical points, such as N-methyl groups, molecular masses or lysine residues that are determined in a certain position in their structure.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
It is a 28-residue synthetic peptide studied as an immune-modulating agent and approved as a drug in some countries. The sequence matches a naturally occurring fragment isolated from thymus tissue. It is not a hormone in the endocrine sense.